Child Labor in the Victorian Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Child Labor in the Victorian Age - Essay Example Unfortunately, as many of those in the government were for child labor, many laws and rules stayed the same, continuing to endanger the children in their workplaces. As most of the businesses during the Victorian age were industrial and factorial, "these were the places of employment that children were limited to and forced to work, so the working conditions were horrid, and not just for the children but for their elders as well (Horn, 1997)". In many instances, such as the coalmines and gas companies, the children worked amongst harmful gases and other potentially dangerous vapors. The outdoor industries, such as shipyards and construction sites, found the children working outside in all manners of temperature and weather conditions, from heat to the icy winters, harsh sunshine to foot upon foot of snow (Damrosch, 1104). As these children often came from poor families, they were unable to afford the proper attire to keep them protected during the changing weather conditions. Other dangers that were presented to the children simply came from the areas in which they worked. On a construction site or a shipyard, there was always the fear of falling beams or walls, stepping on nails, which often led to severe infections that caused disease such as tetanus, which could not be cured during that time and the children often died from it. The children were constantly at risk for getting injured in their workplace; they were too young to be properly aware of all these dangers, and the elders took little concern to the well-being of these children, with many of the elders viewing the children as disposable - it would not be difficult to hire another child if need be. In fact, most of the injuries and deaths on the job during the Victorian age were children, and neglect or unchecked safety issues often caused these. The children, as with the older workers, received few, if any, breaks during their workdays. They were permitted meals at the proper times, but those

Representations of difference in comic books Essay

Representations of difference in comic books - Essay Example In doing so, one considers the range of potential readers and therefore thinks about gender balance to at least reach all kinds of people. Of course profitability is a serious matter to cartoonists and writers because it is not just an expression of their artistic side but it is also their job that should be well-compensated. Minority representation is a social issue that becomes a major concern in comics. It does not only make readers critical of social issues going around them such as feminism, sexism, racism and others which have been the theme of many comic strips that made great noise in the industry. Sometimes, the most daring themes often succeed because of the popularity it can cause from the criticisms it gains from the public eye. Nevertheless, there are laws that often hold back artists in seriously considering their kinds of material otherwise they will be considered pornographic just as it was ruled in 1973 by the Supreme Court that a material is â€Å"considered obscen e if they offended prevailing community standards†. Another important detail to consider in representations is diversity of genre. When genres are determined, it would be easier for writers and readers to identify what is most read. As a medium, some of the benefits of representations are becoming the voice for minorities, discuss on social issues in a catchy manner and educate and encourage children to become more critical of social issues. Comics are interesting because of the cartoonish drawings that attract the attention of readers from children to adults. Therefore it is a medium that one can use to speak to a variety of readers. The images represented and captions written on comics can reflect the environmental circumstances and oftentimes call the attention of readers of different ages who have diverse opinions as shown in â€Å"Say it Loud†. The representations became the voice of Lesbians (Bechdel), racial minorities (Coleman) and feminists (Farmer & Robbins). Although there have been various reactions from readers, there have been a lot who applauded the works of cartoonists who had the courage to speak for the ones they represented. The limitations of representations are interconnected. As mentioned earlier, writers and cartoonists are concerned about gender balance, minority representations and diversity of genre which often limit their decisions. In addition, technological advancements have a great effect on the products because of the use of television and computers which draw the attention of potential readers. There are diverse products that cater to diverse audience which results to a low percentage of possible comic readers. Therefore, the probability is the fear of many cartoonists, that when one starts small, it might stay small (McCloud). There have been tensions that arose among readers and writers about visibility and assimilation. For the artists, perhaps their objective was to create a critical mind in their readers with r epresentations that would appeal to their audiences. However, they have received various reactions. Some enjoyed comic strips while others were able to relate to them because they find that it is their very life that is being represented. Some simply acknowledged the genius of the artists but some had violent reactions. One of the readers of Aaron McGrouder’s is quoted to have said his comic strips are teaching children to become racists. The reader claims to understand the objective of the comic strips for the adult audience but

Factors for Youth Drug Use

Factors for Youth Drug Use What factors leads male young people aged 11 18 years old into taking illicit drugs in the UK? Abstract Statistical data has shown that an increasing number of young people aged between 11 and 18 are using illicit drugs either experimentally or habitually. This study examines a small sample of males aged between 11 and 18, and through unstructured interviews ascertains the reasons for their drug use. The study aims to identify ways in which prevention could be better facilitated for this particular age group. Introduction In men and women the misuse of illicit drugs has increased dramatically over the last 50 years (Zerbe, 1999). Research has shown that the particular age when young people begin using alcohol, tobacco, and other illicit drugs is a predictor of later alcohol and drug problems. For example, 40% of young people who begin drinking at age 14 or younger develop alcohol dependence, compared with 10% of youth who start drinking at age 20 or older. (Ericson, 2001. In Laursen and Brasler, 2002: 181). It has been long-established that users of one drug are more likely to use other drugs than non-users (Gove and Geerken,1979) and that the use of correlates with the onset of psychiatric symptoms. Contemporary research suggests that amongst girls, tobacco use is often a strong indication that other drugs will be used in the future, and in males, alcohol use has been described as a ‘gateway to other drugs.’ (In Laursen and Brasler, 2002: 181). Reasons for young people experimenting or r egularly using drugs are varied, and include pressure from peers, stress and emotional factors, a desire to break convention, and the process of individualisation. Research into the consequences of divorce on young people has shown that negative consequences are most common shortly after a parental divorce (Frost and Pakiz, 1990). While research by Laursen and Brasler recorded the following responses as to why drugs were used: to numb the pain of abuse and neglect, to be accepted, peer pressure, to take control of my own life, for relaxation and pleasure to chill to improve my self-image because Im curious, stressed, or bored to assert myself. (Laursen and Brasler, 2002: 181) Social work practice is reliant upon research in order to find the most effective ways to deal with social problems (Chavkin, 1993). The National Institute of Mental Health ( 1991) proposed that social work research is invaluable because it ‘describes the work domain of social work as touching on a multitude of human problems that inflict pain and suffering on millions of individuals and families.’ (Chavkin, 1993: 3). As children develop into adolescence, they experience a series of dramatic changes, both physical, psychological , and psycho-social. Independence and identity are sought often through the need to belong to a group or more general movement. Substance use increases in adolescence (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman, 1998. In Laursen and Brasler, 2002: 181) as ‘smoking, drinking, and other drugs become a way to appear mature while fitting in with peers.’ (Laursen and Brasler, 2002: 181). Methodology A qualitative research method was decided to be most appropriate. Darlington and Scott (2002) highlighted the three most prominent research methods as being: In-depth interviewing of individuals and small groups Systematic observation of behaviour Analysis of documentary data (Darlington and Scott, 2002: 2) In-depth interviewing of individuals was chosen for this project, and it was proposed to interview five individuals between the ages of 11 and 18 within the young people’s service, using a random sampling method. As suggested by Darlington and Scott (2002: 3): ‘Research methods such as in-depth interviewing and participant observation are particularly well suited to exploring questions in the human services which relate to the meaning of experiences and to deciphering the complexity of human behaviour.’ This approach also offers far more potential for establishing a greater rapport with the individual, where a more trustworthy and detailed account of personal experiences might be achieved as opposed to observation techniques which might only offer relatively superficial or ambiguous evidence of inner thoughts and feelings. The interviews were taped; this ensured that the information was accessible, and facilitated more accurate and reliable research. For ethical reasons it was necessary to obtain the consent of the individuals being interviewed. It was made clear to participants that their information might be reproduced and possibly published as part of the study. It was necessary to obtain their consent prior to conducting the interview in case they objected to any later use of the information. In cases of younger respondents the permission of their older siblings or parents was asked prior to the interview. As the sample was chosen randomly the researcher did not have any influe ncer over the identity of the interviewees. Ten males were selected, of the ages: eleven, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen. All respondents were interviewed in their homes by trained interviewers. Data was collected primarily through interview, and also through self-reports which aimed to establish the presence of any emotional instabilities. The present study made use of the interview format undertaken by researchers in the study by Vandervalk et al (2005) into the relationship between family problems and the behaviour of adolescents. In the 2005 study researchers used a shortened version of the General Health Questionnaire, which measured the extent to which psychological stress and depression had recently been experienced. On a 4-point scale, the respondents indicated the severity of their symptoms (e.g., feeling tense and nervous, feeling unhappy and dejected) during the past 4 weeks (1: much more than usual to 4: not at all). This was replicated for the current study. Youngsters indicated on a 4-point scale whether they had considered committing suicide during the last 12 months (1: never to 4: very often) (Diekstra et al., 1991). To distinguish between internal and external factors the 2005 model study used an ‘Adolescent Externalizing Behavior’ approach that measured the following: Risky habits, measuring the degree to which adolescents were involved in risky or unhealthy behavior. Self-report data on the use of cigarettes, alcohol, and soft drugs were used. On 8-point scales, youngsters indicated if and to what extent they smoked, drank alcohol, or used soft drugs Delinquent behavior was assessed as the number of delinquent acts the respondents reported over the past 12 months. The delinquency measure consists of 21 items pertaining to 3 types of delinquent behavior: violent crime (e.g., Have you ever wounded anyone with a knife or other weapon?), vandalism (e.g., Have you ever covered walls, buses, or entryways with graffiti?), and crime against property (e.g., Have you ever bought something which you knew was stolen?). Educational attainment of adolescents and young adults was assessed by asking youngsters about their current level of education or about the highest level of education achieved, in case they no longer participated in the educational system. (Taken from Vandervalk et al (2005: 533) Results As the interviews were unstructured it was not possible to identify all of these factors for each individual. However, each interview did touch on these areas, and it was left to the individual concerned as to whether they wished to discuss these factors as potential reasons for their use of substances. A list of factors can be found in Appendix One. 5 out of 10 respondents said that a lack of money in their family had, on one or more occasions, led them to become involved in anti social behaviour. All of these respondents affirmed a positive link between anti social behaviour and drug taking. One male, aged fifteen, said that he would take drugs in a group, but never alone, in order to gain enough confidence to ‘cause trouble’ in their local area. 9 out of 10 respondents believed that their age group was not catered for enough in the local area and that they took drugs for ‘something to do’ rather than being forced into it by emotional or stress factors. However, one respondent, aged eighteen, said that he used cocaine regularly because it ‘made his stress go away.’ When asked about the nature of the stress involved he said that he felt under pressure to achieve at school. He expressed concern that if he didn’t achieve then his family would continue to struggle financially. An added stress in this case was that the withdrawals he experienced from his use of the drug were negatively affecting his relationship with his family, and reducing his ability to complete his school work. When asked about the amount and regularity of drug use, more than half of respondents said that they used drugs more than occasionally. 3 of those said they used regularly ‘for something to do.’ And another said that they used ‘whenever they were bored.’ Major positive correlations were found between the respondents’ self-reports, where negative thoughts and stress prevailed, and the number of occasions that they confessed to using drugs. Although this link appears to be a significant one, it is possible that some interviewees did not give a completely accurate account of their use patterns, possibly in fear of being ‘found out’ by parents. More than two respondents said that they were attracted to drug taking because of its associations with criminality Results were consistent with the premises of the Social construction approach to defining and explaining the use of drugs in young people. Past research has defined drug use by minority youth as ‘a dysfunctional effort to escape problems stemming from poverty and racism or as an alternative means of making money in the face of underclass isolation from legitimate economic opportunities’ (Merton, 1957; Cloward and Ohlin, 1960; Finestone, 1957; Williams, 1990; Harrell and Peterson, 1992; Currie, 1993. In Covington, 1997: ) However, Covington criticises the social construction of drug problems amongst young people as too easily explaining away reasons for use through emphasis on individual differences as opposed to collective conditions. She suggests that trends in minority and majority drug use should receive separate treatment. Conclusion and Recommendations Future prevention through social work practice needs to focus on the areas of inclusion. A high percentage of respondents said that they used drugs recreationally, and that this had contributed to their developing addiction. That there exists positive associations with criminality reflects the need for social work policy to adapt to find more ways of addressing the needs of young people in particular areas. The findings of the Hidden Harm report commissioned by the government found that children of drug users are one of the most vulnerable groups within society, and as part of the Government response to the report it was suggested that ‘the voices of the children of problem drug users should be heard and listened to.’ (Department for Education and Skills, 2005:4). Research into this minority and publication of results could potentially help social work policy to deter young users from taking drugs, and might also deter young users from bringing up children around drugs. Future research might include a more socially diverse sample, including a greater variety in terms of race and background. Externalising factors might also include social trends and political changes, as these greatly affect the nature and accessibility of service provision within a local area. Bibliography Boynton, P. (2005) The Research Companion. Psychology Press Brendtro, L., Brokenleg, M., Van Bockern, S. (2002). Reclaiming youth at risk: Our hope for the future. (2nd ed.) Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service. Bryman, A. (1993), Approaches to Social Enquiry. London: Routledge Chavkin, N.F, (1993), The Use of Research in Social Work Practice: A Case Example from School Social Work. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers Corby B 2006 Applying Research in Social Work Practice Buckingham Open University Press Covington, J., ‘The Social Construction of the Minority Drug Problem.’  Social Justice, Vol. 24, (1997), pp. Darlington, Y, and Scott, D, (2002), Research in Practice: Stories from the Field. Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen Unwin. Department of Education and Skills, (2005), ‘Government Response to Hidden Harm: the Report of an Inquiry by the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs’ [online]. Available from:  http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/_files/73D1398FE270B13D89AF63EF1A8B341D.pdf  [Accessed 2/08/08] Ericson, N. (2001). Substance abuse: The nations number one health problem. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Frost, A. K., and Pakiz, B. (1990). The effects of marital disruption on adolescents: Time as a dynamic. Am. J. Orthopsychiatr. 60: 544-555. Goldberg, D. P. (1978). Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. General Practice Research Unit, Horsham Gove, W.R, and Geerken, M., (1979), ‘Drug Use and Mental Health among a Representative National Sample of Young Adults. Social Forces, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 572-590 Laursen, E.K, and Brasler, P, (2002), ‘Harm Reduction a Viable Choice for Kids Enchanted with Drugs?.’ Reclaiming Children and Youth. Volume 11. Issue 3. P. 181+. Marlatt, G.A. (1998). Basic principles and strategies of harm reduction. In G.A. Marlatt (Ed.), Harm reduction: Pragmatic strategies for managing high-risk behaviors (pp. 49-66). New York: Guilford Press. Silverman, D, (2004), Doing Qualitative Research. London: Sage Strauss, A Corbin J. (1998), Basics of Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Vandervalk, I; Spruijt, I; De Goede, M; Mass, C, and Meeus, W, ‘Family Structure and Problem Behavior of Adolescents and Young Adults: A Growth-Curve Study.’ Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Vol 34. Issue 6. (2005). P. 533+ Zerbe, K.J, (1999), Womens Mental Health in Primary Care. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Appendix One Unstructured Interview: To identify the presence of influence of the following factors: Internalizing behaviour Adolescent age Individual-level Factors Adolescent Education Externalizing behaviour Family-level Factors Family Structure Family Income

The Facts About Low Carbohydrate Diets :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Facts About Low Carbohydrate Diets Imagine a world where imperfections of the body did not exist. A place where beauty was seen from the inside and the body was not judged by looks. Today, a person cannot watch the television or flip though a newspaper without being haunted with the thought of being "fat" or trying to achieve the "perfect body." Dieting has been around for centuries, where people have always strived to have a healthy and toned body. Unfortunately, most people who lose weight cannot successfully keep it off. This leads to people attempting all types of diets to maintain an ideal weight. Nearly two-thirds of adults are considered over weight or obese. With this high proportion of overweight people, it is no surprise that by the year 2005, obesity will surpass smoking and become the nations leading cause of preventable deaths ("More Dieters...," 2004). After this statement was announced to the public, health activists pounced at this like a starving man at a buffet. Recently, Americans have been bombarded with products and programs that promise weight loss. One diet that has swept the nation with rapid weight loss results is the low carbohydrate diet. Low carbohydrate diets are receiving the attention of many people through the over-sensationalism of the diet through the media, low-carbohydrate books, promotion from fitness centers and health clubs, and by many restaurants (Bilsbourough, n.d). A person cannot even go into a restaurant or fast food chain with out having the option of ordering off a "low-carb lifestyle" menu. An estimated forty million Americans have attempted to eat a low carbohydrate diet (Lempert, 2003). Low carbohydrate diets are simple programs in which a person restricts carbohydrate intake, and incorporates a greater amount of high-protein foods into their diet. In return, caloric intake is dramatically decreased; therefore, the body utilizes fat and muscle tissue for energy ("Low Carbohydrate...," 2004). Over a short period, this type of diet will result in rapid weight loss and health benefits. Even though many people do experience the health benefits of low carbohydrate diets, researchers claim that there are harmful side effects. Carbohydrates As a human, we are required to intake a certain amount of nutrients to function and maintain good health. Nutrients are classified as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Essential nutrients, or those nutrients that must be obtained from a food source, include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins (Worthington, 2004).

Positive Relationship

HKU SPACE Community College Today’s agenda: ? After this class, you are expected to know : I. The features of a healthy relationship II. How to initiate interactions III. How to enrich a relationship How can you apply any one of the elements to improve relationships in your life? There are questions for your self-reflection! 2 I. Features of healthy relationship 1. Genuineness (Rogers, 1980) ? Revealing your true self and striving to be honest. ? More than absence of lying; openness and authenticity are significant facets. 3 I. Features of healthy relationship 2. Unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1980) ?Warm acceptance of each other’s personhood. ? Positive responses not because of any conditions or reasons. ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? I would love you most if you become the best among your classmates. 4 I. Features of healthy relationship 3. Empathy (Rogers, 1980) ? Ability to experience others’ perspectives, feelings, ideas and emotions. ? Feel what the o thers feel, being able to â€Å"put yourself into others’ place†. 5 I. Features of healthy relationship 4. Enjoyments of joy and â€Å"up†. ? Feeling of energized. ? Feeling better emotionally after meeting each other. ? Feeling 6 I. Features of healthy relationship . Self-disclosure ? As people reveal more of the hidden selves, a powerful basis for trust and understanding can be formed. 7 I. Features of healthy relationship 6. Dependability ? Can rely on each other. ? The feeling that you can count on the other to treat you fairly, and this is reciprocated. 8 ? Codependency ? ? ? Codependency is NOT one of the features of healthy relationship. Harmful to the parties involved in the relationships. Codependents feel compelled to help others. They are (excessively) responsive to the needs of the world to the exclusion of their own needs. ?Do you always try to please or help others to an extent that you may hurt yourself and others? 9 I. Features of healthy relatio nship 7. High self-esteem ? ? Enable one to reach out positively to others. I am ok, you are ok. 10 Self-reflection! ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Can you often show your true self to others? Do you like a person just because s/he does you good favors? Can you often empathize with others? Can you often disclose yourself to others with ease? Do you often find lots of fun when interacting with others? Do you have someone whom you can depend on in your life, if not, any possible reasons?Do you think that â€Å"I am ok, others are ok too†? 11 II. Initiating Interactions 1. 2. 3. 4. Managing first impression Tolerance, Acceptance and Appreciation Overcoming shyness Approaching people 12 1. Managing first impressions ? You have only one chance to leave a first impression to other people. On the other hand†¦. ? Be open to your first impression on others. ? Allow time and involvement to verify your first impression. 13 2. From Tolerance, Acceptance to Appreciation ? Tolerance of people who are different is a worthy, basic goal of interpersonal relations. Social Categorization (For instance, French) ?Stereotyping (Stereotypic labels towards French, such as romantic, stylish, dirty) ? Prejudice (negative attitudes towards French) ? Discrimination (unfair treatment towards French) 14 ? 3. Overcoming shyness ? ? Move beyond passiveness and inaction Start with small behavioral changes ? Sincere smile to your classmates ? Say â€Å"hi† or â€Å"good morning†to classmates 15 4. Approaching people ? ? Looking for approachability cues. ? Approach someone when he/she is in a hurry, involved in other issues? ? Or when they are waiting for a class to start, sit alone and looked open? Checking for approachability. Can I talk to you for 5 mins? ? Are you busy right now? 16 Self-reflection! ? ? ? ? Do you judge a person immediately based on the first impressions? Do you often prejudice people based on their social categories? Do you often disturb others because you never c heck for approachability? Do you often find it hard to converse with others? 17 III. How to enrich a relationship 1. Realistic expectation of relationships ? No one is perfect, neither are relationships ? I expect I would always be happy in the relationship. 18 2. Sensitivity ? Having an awareness about the perceptions and perspectives of others ?You sense that your friend is a bit unusual today, hence offers concerns and/help. 3. Appreciation ? Do you often deliver sincere compliments to people around you? 19 4. Little act of kindness ? ? ? Not time-consuming favors but brings significant joy Induce a helping and caring atmosphere The effects usually have been overlooked Demonstrate a little act of kindness to the person next to you NOW. 20 5. Assertiveness ? Maintain one’s legitimate rights and expressing thoughts and feelings in nonthreatening ways. Decline other’s requests assertively without feeling guilty ? ? I can’t help you this time, I need to finish so me other important things. † 21 6. Negotiation skills ? Conflicts is NOT a matter of right or wrong but is only caused by difference in opinions. Five Styles of managing conflict (Putnam, 1990; Thomas, 1988, cited in Weiten & Lloyd, 2000) ? 22 ? (1) Avoidance ? ? low concern for self and other People who prefer this style believe that ignoring a problem will make it go away Low concern for self, high concern for others Accommodator feels uncomfortable with conflict High concern for self, low concern for others Competitors possibly turn conflict into a win-lose situation ? (2) Accommodation ? ? (3) Competition ? ? 23 ? (4) Compromise ? ? Moderate concern for self and others Compromisers may give up something so both can have partial satisfaction. High concern for self and others Involves a sincere effort to find a solution that will maximize the satisfaction to both parties Conflict is viewed as a mutual problem to be solved as effectively as possible 24 ? (5) Collaboration ? ? ? 7. Supportiveness What is the most supportive utterance or gesture you have ever met? Empathy is important ? Verbal communication ? â€Å"Cry if it makes you feel better. I will be there for you. † ? ? Nonverbal ? a hug or a touch at shouldersJust â€Å"borrow your ears† patiently ? Empowering the person â€Å"I know you have been strong and tough. I believe that you can pass through the hard time. † 25 8. Dealing with difficult people If one of your group members doesn’t show much effort on the group project (e. g. , often late for the project meetings, submit work late), how can you deal with him/her? 26 Being assertive! ? Being patient, giving people more than one chance, and being empathic! ? Change your reality: just being she was short-tempered doesn’t mean it’s going to ruin my day! ? 27 Self-reflection! ? ? ? Can you express yourself truly while respecting other persons’ rights?Do you know how to resolve conflicts with othe rs successfully? Do you often show support to others when they are in need? 28 Work on your relationships with the knowledge. It’s only YOU who can bring about the betterments. 29 References Hanna, S. L. , Suggett, R. , & Radtke, D. (2007). Person to person: Positive relationships don’t just happen (5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Weiten, W. , & Lloyd, M. A. (2000). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment at the turn of the century (6th ed). Stamford, CT: Wadsworth. 30

Abnormal Psychology; Defining Abnormality

Abnormal Psychology: Assignment 1- Defining abnormality Defining abnormal behaviour is one of the most difficult and provocative subjects within the field of abnormal psychology as there are a range of methodologies you can use to define abnormalities. Abnormality is a behaviour or condition that strays from what society views as normal and appropriate, consequently causing distress or harm to oneself or those around them.Due to the fact that society has changed through history when defining abnormality, we are now able to define abnormalities using many different scientific and non-scientific approaches. However despite the fact that abnormal behaviour can be defined in more than one way, all have their limitations; therefore generally psychologists will use a combination of the following methods when defining abnormalities. Statistical infrequency is one model used to define abnormal behaviour; abnormalities are defined by how often a certain type of behaviour occurs.How the majori ty of people act are usually classed as normal whereas possessing qualities and traits that are uncommon or rare are usually classed as abnormal. Despite the word abnormal invoking a feeling of negativity, displaying abnormal behaviour is not always viewed as a negative, for example the average human being would not be able to run 100 metres as quick as Usain Bolt as that kind of skill is statistically infrequent therefore according to this particular model he possesses an abnormal skill but would not be classed as having a mental disorder or in need of treatment.The major strength when using this model of defining abnormalities is that it is not subject to personal bias as the standards are set and based wholly on statistics and frequencies; how common certain behaviour is and how often it occurs.However there are many limitations when using this model, as mentioned above there are many abnormal traits that are statistically infrequent but socially desirable such as being ambidextr ous, but according to this model they would be classed as having a mental disorder or in need of treatment which is not the case due to the fact they have an uncommon ability, furthermore there are abnormal traits whist being a statistically frequent type of behaviour they are socially undesirable such as depression.Another flaw is the fact that the infrequency of some behaviours differ culturally and sub-culturally as certain behaviours are socially acceptable in some cultures but not in others, also within certain cultures there maybe differences. In some African cultures being able to speak to the dead or hearing voices may be statistically infrequent but displaying these kinds of traits are viewed as a blessing therefore socially desirable whereas in the U.K if you professed to be able to speak with dead people, hearing voices or receiving messages from god you would definitely raise concerns with regards to their mental state as this kind of behaviour is statistically infrequen t and socially undesirable. One way to define abnormalities is a ‘Deviation social norms’. Deviation derives from the word deviant and this is defined as irregular or unusual behaviour, social norms are the standards of acceptable behaviour set by us and society around us.Therefore deviating from the social norm is an individual or individuals who act out of character in accordance to the social norms set by society. A simple example of deviating from the social norm is rudeness or lack of politeness. Politeness is fundamental when interacting and communicating with each other positively; similarly somebody who is rude is therefore behaving in a deviant way as they are unable to interact with others according to what society expects.However as our culture also defines our social norms within society, likewise the norms we value may not be socially accepted within another culture. A good illustration of this is the contrast of social norms is the United Kingdom and place s in the United Arab Emirates like Dubai, regarding public displays of affection. In the U. K we have a more relaxed opinion of public displays of affection; to a certain extent of course, whilst in Dubai it is socially unacceptable even criminal to publicly display affection even in an environment we may deem as socially acceptable such as the beach.One of the most predominant limitations is that defining abnormalities in this way may be susceptible to abuse, as social norms change through history. What may have been acceptable 50 years ago may not be acceptable now and vice versa, for instance in the case of being pregnant out of wedlock in the 1950’s, many women were sectioned and treated for a mental illness, whereas nowadays it is deemed socially acceptable to engage in sex and procreate before marriage without any reprisals or threat of institutionalisation.However if we were to define abnormal behaviour with the single model of deviating from the social norm, professio nals could in turn label everyone that does not conform as mentally ill which is not always the case. ( Szasz 1974, cited in Cardwell and Flanagan, 2008, page 178) Additionally another limitation of defining abnormalities using this characteristic is cultural relativism. As we know the process of defining a deviation from the social norm is majorly influenced by our culture as it is our culture that defines what a particular norm is.For example a psychologist from the United Kingdom may have a diagnosis for an individual displaying abnormal behaviour, such as walking the streets with a gun meanwhile a psychologist in the United States of America may not. Every culture has their own social norms and within those cultures there are sub-cultures that would have their own social norms therefore the cultural relativity; whether it be cross or sub-culturally has to be taken into account when diagnosing somebody’s symptoms as abnormal.Furthermore in the DSM (The Diagnostic and Stati stics Manual) there is a section that describes certain patterns of behaviour and syndromes that are specific to certain areas and places around the world. Psychologists call this ‘culture- bound syndromes’ which means that there are no universal standards when labelling individuals as abnormal, as disorders vary in conjunction to where you and the disorder originate. There is another way to define abnormal behaviour another model is ‘Failure to function adequately’.Failure to function adequately from the sufferer’s point of view manifests itself when they are unable to cope with the daily demands of life such as working, interacting with others meaningfully, therefore labelling their own behaviour as abnormal; resulting in an individual seeking medical attention. David Rosenhan & Martin Seligman (1989) stated that there are a various features of abnormality other than suffering and maladaptiveness. Other features are unconventional behaviour, observ er discomfort, violation of moral standards, loss of control and irrationality.However just displaying one of the above features is of no great significance, it is the presence of several that would define abnormal behaviour. (www. integratedsociopsychology. net) There are further limitations to this model when defining abnormality, as the patient or professional has to recognise the failure to function adequately is apparent, which is opinion based and may differ. For instance an individual may think their maladaptive abnormal behaviour is perfectly normal and they are coping fine, meanwhile not being able to comprehend their inability to cope, sequentially others may find their behaviour very distressing.However someone displaying adaptive, abnormal habits such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder whilst not posing a threat to themselves or society could still be classified as being abnormal due to unconventional behaviour. Showing signs of distress, irrationality and maladaptive beha viour would usually result in being classed as abnormal but this may not always be the case; for example showing signs of distress such as being depressed may be classed as abnormal behaviour but the individual may feel fine even happy.Again when showing signs of irrationality, you may be causing no harm to professing that you may be Jesus but irrational thoughts about death and killing for instance would raise concern, in turn maladaptive behaviour can be demonstrated when an individual self-harms or mutilates we would class them as portraying abnormal behaviour whereas smoking can be seen as self-harming but not enough criterion to be classed as mentally ill due to maladaptive tendencies.Cultural relativity plays a crucial part in this feature when defining abnormalities as each culture functions in different ways, hence the failure to function needs to be assessed according to their culture. For example, in the United Kingdom dogs are viewed as family members even as companions a nd the harming of, especially eating a dog is a criminal offense punishable by law. Therefore this behaviour would be considered abnormal; whereas in China, dogs are eaten as part of a meal and keeping a dog in the home as a pet would be viewed as abnormal behaviour in China.The standard of one culture cannot be used to judge another as the symptoms and diagnosis are dependent on the cultural ideals and standards upheld by the individual patient. Alternatively another approach used to define abnormal behaviour is ‘Deviating from ideal mental health’. This model uses the similar approach used when detecting physical illness, when diagnosing a physical illness physician’s look for signs of physical health such as regular heartbeat; normal body temperature etc. , so an absence of one of these signs would indicate illness.In 1958, Marie Jahoda through research and secondary evidence developed a theory that if physical illness can be detected by the absence of the sta ndard ‘signs’ of health then alternatively mental health could be also. (en. wikipedia. org) The characteristics she identified as defining someone as being of ‘Ideal Mental Health’ included having an accurate view of reality, integration and ability to deal with stressful situations, capability to grow, develop and adjust, also being able to function at work and hold positive relations even the ability to love.In view of this model it shows that the absence of one the above criteria would indicate an abnormality even a potential mental condition. With all models there are limitations, according to this particular model the majority of people in general would be classed as abnormal or suffering a mental disorder of some kind as most people lack one of the criterion. Marie Jahoda did say that it was the ‘Ideal’ mental health so it would be difficult to gauge the level of abnormality depending on the amount of criterion an individual maybe lackin g.For example someone could be lacking the criterion of personal growth and actualisation resulting in a lack of drive and ambition, but that individual may be completely happy even satisfied regarding the situation; according to Jahoda they would be still viewed as mentally ill rather than just unambitious and lacking motivation. Despite Marie Jahoda using a similar technique used to define physical illness, physical illness have physical causes such as a cough due to contracting a virus whereas being diagnosed as having a mental illness, atients and psychologists are not always presented with physical signs as most mental illnesses derive from trauma in life, for that reason the diagnosis of a mental illness cannot be identified in exactly the same way as a physical illness. Cultural relativism is a compelling limitation as different cultures have different ways of expressing their ‘Ideal’ mental health.For example, according to Jahoda an absence of the criterion of s elf-actualization would indicate the presence of a mental disorder but that is because the western world strives for individuality and acclaim, however some tribal communities in Africa and the Amazon act as a collective and concentrate on working as a group and sharing every aspect of daily life, if the Jahoda criterion was measured against an Amazonian tribe they would be deemed as mentally ill rather than being a caring tightknit community, the cross cultural differences are too much of an dominating factor.The different models described all differ in perspectives. Failure to function adequately focuses on the individual’s sense of abnormal functioning, deviating from social norm concentrates on other people’s perspective and deviating from ideal mental health is an amalgamation of the first two models without taking into account subjective feelings.The classification and definition of abnormal behaviour has many successful approaches but as a single model is not ad equate enough to correctly define abnormalities, although each model definitely gives a good indication, it’s the combination of the described models commonly known as the multi-criteria approach that successfully aids psychologists in correctly defining and diagnosing abnormal behaviour correctly in a patient.References Cardwell, R. Flanagan, C. (2008) Psychology AS: The Complete Companion. Oxford University Press: Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP. Accessed 15. 10. 12 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Marie_Jahoda Accessed 21. 10. 12 http://www. integratedsociopsychology. net/Defining_Abnormality/7'FeaturesofAbnormality'-DavidRosenhan&M. html Accessed 16. 10. 12

A Syntax Analysis of In Cold Blood essays

A Syntax Analysis of 'In Cold Blood' essays In the early hours of November 15, 1959, Herb Clutter, a prosperous farm owner in the city of Holcomb, Kansas, was brutally murdered with his wife and two of their four children. Fascinated by the lack of motive and evidence, author Truman Capote traveled to Kansas in the company of his friend Harper Lee to write award-winning In Cold Blood, a book detailing the four murders. With his elaborate sentence structure and one-of-a-kind seen syntax, Truman Capote was able to successfully reconstruct the murders and depict the capture, trial, and execution of the two killers, Richard Dick Hickock and Perry Smith. Capote structurally divides In Cold Blood into four titled sections: The Last to See Them Alive, Persons Unknown, Answer, and Corner. Within each lengthy section, the narrative switches back and forth between several characters, demonstrating the different experiences of each individual. In a small chapter in The Last to Them Alive, Capote describes the Clutters family home before becoming a murder scene. He writes, The furniture of the den, a cement-floored room that ran the length of the house, consisted almost entirely of examples of his [Kenyon] carpentry (shelves, tables, stools, a ping-pong table) and Nancy's needlework (chintz slip covers that rejuvenated a decrepit couch, curtain, pillows bearing legends: Happy? and You Don't Have To Be Crazy To Live Here But It Helps)" (38). In this passage, Capote utilizes parenthetical phrases to better develop the lifestyles of Kenyon and Nancy Clutter, two of the four murder victims. Although it may be argued that the surplus of such d etails is unnecessary, this sentence structure grants the reader an opportunity to learn more about the characters behaviors. By learning of the innocence of the young victims showcased above, the readers can sympathize for this family and realize they were not des...